What are you wearing? Your clothing says a lot about who you are. This is not a new idea. In the 1700s, people displayed their social status by the clothes they wore. In a glance, you could tell whether a man was a gentleman or a working man, rich or poor. He dressed his wife, family and servants in the best that he could afford, an Old World tradition that arrived in America with the English and French. Women displayed their handiwork for all to see in the guise of pockets, aprons, kerchiefs and other accessories. A widows wore her embroidered pockets, aprons, and kerchief so that an eligible gentlemen could see her skill and proficiency in the domestic crafts.
On the western frontier during the Revolutionary War, clothing was more difficult to obtain than food or shelter. It took over a year to grow and process flax into linen cloth. Sheep in the country produced wool that was not of the best quality. Millions of yards of fabric were imported annually from England. A woman who purchased flowered silk or India chintz made an investment in a “dress of a lifetime.” Most clothing was made to wear as long as possible and was carefully repaired to make it last. When possible, it was remodeled to follow the latest fashion trends.
The country woman’s work, often took her into the fields, where the work dictated the wearing of shorter skirts, about calf length. Many of the rich adopted these rural styles when relaxing. Gentry women played at being a shepherdess, complete with shepherd’s crook, while the country maids tried as best they could to emulate the elegant ladies of the court of Versailles. Marie Antoinette herself enjoyed the French country wearing a shorter petticoat.
Many American households had indentured servants who exchanged a promise of work for a passage on a ship to America. The terms often involved a commitment to work for their patron for two to seven years. A woman in Westmoreland County, PA was made to serve two extra years because her master claimed he lost her services due to pregnancy.
Often a servant was given cloth by her mistress. After all, her appearance reflected the status of the master. She might get the mistress’s cast offs that had gone out of style or that did not fit anymore. It cost much more to buy the material than to make a gown. Gowns were ripped apart and remodeled. A hip-length fitted bodice alone required about one and a half yards of cloth. Laces in the front allowed her to gain weight without the need for a new bodice. An apron was pinned onto, or “afore,” the gown with straight pins – the “pinafore.”
Polite society did not require a lady to be dressed until 2:30 or 3:00 in the afternoon. The mornings were free to write letters or entertain in her boudoir. Jacket bodices and petticoats were worn throughout the 18th century by the better sort for “undress,” and by the middling and meaner sort in a coarser material for everyday wear. “Undress” described clothes that fell short of the full dress of formal occasions.
During the Revolutionary War, many women of all classes followed their men to the battlefield. These women, known as camp followers, cooked, washed, nursed and did sundry other things for the soldiers. While not considered in the same class as camp followers, Mrs. Hancock and Mrs. Washington followed their husbands to winter camps. She would be required to carrying all of her possessions rolled within her blanket.
During the American Revolution, patriotic women used only domestic materials such as linen, wool, or their combination, linsey-woolsey. Every home had a spinning wheel, and many also had looms. Using natural materials, these fabrics were hand-dyed in muted tones of yellow, green, and brown.
Bright color was popular with the rich, and silk accepter dye better than any other cloth. Brocaded patterns often incorporated pink, orange, and purple into the woven pattern. The expense of a dress of silk made it a cherished investment which was carefully remodeled with each new style. During the 1780s, materials with vertical stripes and bright colors were popular.
Outerclothing
Skirts, known as petticoats, were usually about 100 to 120 inches in diameter at the bottom. Unlike today, petticoats were made to be seen. Peasant pleats at the bottom of the petticoat could be let down as it became worn, or as a girl grew taller.
The short gown, or bodice, could be made without a pattern. The style, popular for more than 100 years, is one rectangular piece of material which has been darted in the back and gathered around the waist by a drawstring. This drawstring allowed for expansion. The piece cut from under the arm was used to add width over the hips. Straight pins closed the front.
A cloak of red wool was called a cardinal. “Left in the grease”, it would shed water, as would a felt hat.
Staying warm
The layered look is not new. In the 18th century, layers were added until you were warm enough. Some people wore all the clothing they owned to keep off the cold.
There was no central heating in the buildings, so as soon as you moved away from the fireplace you were cold. Quilted cloth was made into not only petticoats, but also jackets and capes. Layers of clothing also helped keep you warm.
Neckerchiefs up to one square yard filled in the neckline and kept the shoulders warm. To keep the arms comfortable in the fireplace-heated buildings, sleeves could be pulled over the chemise and laced to the boned bodice. Fingerless gloves were worn indoors during cold weather, with mittens for outdoor wear.
Kerchiefs where folded a particular way so that you didn’t have the bunch of cloth at the back of the neck, away-toward you-away, then pinned in the center. The kerchief was typically made of the finest material a woman could afford. The frontier woman gave up many things - even went to wearing leather bodices - but she kept one fine kerchief for dress. Research shows many were of printed cloth and some were silk.
Shoes with buckles, colored stockings, and knit garters (garter stitch, of course) graced a lady’s legs. The first piece of jewelry a woman acquired were buckles for her shoes. Shoes are of black leather. Right and left foot invented in Philadelphia ca. 1800. Between May and October, shoes were not worn. Wooden clogs (sabots) and wool stockings were worn by the poor during the winter months.
Underclothing
During the 18th century, there was no clear cut definition of what was clothing and what was underwear. The undergarment was merely the part of the costume worn under other garments.
Corsets, or “stays,” were worn by all women. This laced garment lengthened the waist and heightened the appearance of a youthful figure. The stay maker was a specialist, and usually a man because of the strength needed to stitch through the heavy materials. There are many engravings of the period showing ladies being fitted for their stays. The stay was stiffened with whalebone and laced to fit very tight. For the middle and lower classes, stays were homemade. Sometimes the rich covered them with silk brocade or dress material so that they became bodices and were worn as outer garments. Often, the tabs around the bottom of a corset were weighted to keep them lying flat.
The lacing of a corset revealed a woman’s station – up the front meant that she dressed herself, not having the benefit of a servant. A corset of leather indicated you had little or no means. The more severe the cut and boning, the higher the lady’s class. Boned high in the back, the corset flattened the shoulder blades, which forced back the shoulders, resulting in a fashionably narrow back and uplifted bosom. The instant a lady started to slump, a gentle prod reminded her to straighten up. When seated, a lady’s ability to move was regulated by her corset; a dropped fan was retrieved by a servant or a gentleman.
A busk, a sturdy stave inserted into a pocket down the front of the corset, reminded a lady to stand straight and helped flatten her stomach. The busk was often made by a beau or husband of whale bone or wood, often handsomely decorated. Risque sayings were sometimes placed on the back of the busk, nearest to the woman’s heart.
Fashionable costume shapes were the result of a buildup of layered foundation garments. A letter from 1785 states that ladies old and young wore preposterous pads behind to counterbalance the enormous false bosoms of puffed gauze. By 1786 large rumps were no longer in fashion in France. But from the mid-18th century, some form of wide silhouette persisted as the preferred look for the next century.
The layering of garments provided another advantage. In an age of questionable hygiene, when the outer daily dress went unlaundered, the logical way to protect them was by using layers that could not only be washed but withstand boiling and harsh lye soaps. Washing clothes was a major effort, often requiring three or four days’ labor every other month.
To achieve the wide silhouette that was popular, a woman could wear an extra petticoat and pull it up through the pocket slits of her outer petticoat to look wide-side-to-side without hoops. Or, she could wear a pair of pockets under her petticoat. But most women wore hoops to achieve this look. One type, constructed like the baskets used to carry poultry to market, acquired the name panier, or “hen’s basket.” These were worn in pairs, tied to a waistband, over each hip, and consisted of a light frame of split oak covered in cotton. The paniers which could also serve as pockets in which to carry a lady’s needlepoint, sewing equipment, and other necessities.
The bosom buddy was worn beneath the corset to provide support and shape. This small pillow-like structure was stuffed with wads of wool and created an effect similar to that of a modern underwire bra. It also added warmth in the winter. It was worn very close and in a delicate place, so if someone calls you their bosom buddy, you are a very close friend!
Beneath the petticoat and the hoops was the chemise. Like most garments of this time, it was constructed following a simple pattern – only three rectangular pieces of cloth were needed. One piece extended from the front hem, across the shoulder and down to the hem in back. The chemise was shaped by removing a triangle in the shoulder area and placing that piece in the bottom of the skirt. Sometimes the sleeves are trimmed with lace. Gussets under the arm allowed more movement. The neck was gathered so that it could be adjusted to the neckline of any gown. Chemises doubled as nightgowns. Nothing was worn beneath them, but in the winter it could get drafty, so another petticoat was worn underneath, pulled between the legs, and tucked in the waistband. A ribbon girdle confined the chemise at the waist.
Accessories
Caps, hats, and hair
The hair was covered at all times. There were outdoor hats, indoor caps and night caps. A cap denoted your social standing in a man’s world. At the age of 16 a girl put on the cap of a woman and she might “set her cap” toward a potential beau. Mob caps were as varied as the women who wore them. Some were simple rounds of cotton or linen, gathered around the edge by a ribbon or drawstring. Some had side lappets which could be buttoned beneath the chin or out of the way on top of the head.
Indoor caps helped kept the head warm and the hair cleaner. Elaborate and architectural hair styles were popular and required large caps to cover them between outings. A fancy hair style was pasted in place with grease and fat and often had ribbons and other items (for example, bird cages (including bird!) or model ships). In the 1770s, hair styles were extremely large - the higher the better. To achieve the height, “Heddus rolls” of cow tails, horse hair and human hair were carded together. Several hours were spent building these towers which measured longer from cap to hair line than from chin to hair line. The result of great effort, they were left up for six or seven weeks. A long stick was helpful for scratching under the hairdo, which became home to generations of lice, fleas, and other critters. When the hair was finally cut apart, a lively hunt ensued!
Pockets and chatelaines
Pockets were not sewn in a petticoat, but tied around the waist. Lucy Locket, the unfortunate maid of the children’s verse, lost her pocket because her string became untied.
The pocket allowed a woman to show off her fancy needlework, such as finely worked crewel embroidery. But the pocket also carried everything a woman needed, such as nose cloth, snuff box, and other small items. Apron pockets were made large enough to protect the petticoat.
Also in the pocket was the pocket book, a large wallet which carried important papers, such as deeds, indentures, and marriage licenses.
In addition to the pocket, a chatelaines kept needed utensils close at hand. It consisted of a sturdy tape or a light chain that hung from the waist. Scissors and a needle case were hung from the chatelaine, just in case a stitch or two was needed. A small cloth container of sweet-smelling herbs known as a pomander provided was easily within reach if the odors became too offensive. Almost every woman had an herb garden, and treasured recipes and herbs for the pomander were thoughtful gifts.
Men and children
During the Revolution, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson proposed that Americans wear linen and wool instead of imported silk to promote local industry. Both men produced linen and wool on their plantations, and wore suits of American wool for their inaugurations. Benjamin Franklin abandoned the fancy dress of the gentry for plain clothes and a marten cap.
England had discouraged the wool industry in the colonies, and regulated the production of sheep in the Intolerable Acts. A fabric of linen and wool known as linsey-woolsey combined strength of linen with the color and warmth of wool in a comfortable, less costly material that was both warm and sturdy. It was made by interweaving linen and wool threads. It was not considered to be attractive, and many believed it was banned in Bible.
Men of the gentry class wore extravagant suits of fine woolen and silk fabrics. A waist coat, (what we know as a vest) was worn under the coat. It could be sleeved or sleeveless, and was sometimes made of luxuriant fabrics, such as embroidered silk. A gentleman’s breeches matched the coat. Considered the peacocks of the 18th century, men often wore bright colors, including yellow and pink. It is reported that George Washington had a pink velvet suit.
The shirt had no taper, but was wide and long enough to wear as a night shirt. For the gentlemen, fine linen or cotton ruffles at cuffs and at the neck slit are more common after 1770. Fine linen didn’t last, so a working man’s shirt was heavier linen fabric, often of striped or checked cloth.
Men wore a cravat, or neck cloth. The stock was worn for more formal situations. It was black or white pleated linen and buckled behind the neck. Stocks were worn over the collar and allowed the ruffles at the front of the shirt to show. A century earlier, stocks were made of leather and were worn to protect the neck from sword slashes. Spotted or checked neckerchiefs were worn by working class.
Men’s britches, or breeches, were often linen with pewter buttons. Ties at the back, on the waistband, allowed britches to be adjusted to the wearer. Breeches were knee-length so that the shape of the man’s calves and ankles were revealed under the stockings. The front flap opening of the breeches was called a “fall;” (zipped flies would not be available for another 150 years). The back seat was full and baggy to accommodate the long shirts men wore, and to make sitting more comfortable. Some gentlemen wore breeches to show off their legs that were so tight that they could not sit down.
An important part of a gentleman’s attire, the stockings came over the knee and were held in place with garters. These garters were not seen. The designs at the ankles were called clocks. Knitting machines were new, and produced flat stockings with back seams.
Men carried cash, papers (deeds, indentures), and other necessities in a pocket book. He might also carry a coin purse, sometimes called a miser’s purse. It was long, with one end round and one end square. A gentlemen put high denomination coins in one end, and lower in the other. This allowed them to disperse the money without thought.
All men wore hats. Gentleman wore tricorn (“three-cornered”) hats with ribbon cockades.
A wig relieved men of daily hair care. Rather than clean, comb, and style hair, it was easier to shave your head and wear a wig. Wig makers (peruke makers) serviced wig for a small fee.
Working men, especially on the frontier, needed durable clothing that could withstand the rigors of farming. Cottons imported from England were available in America, but were too expensive for many yeomen. Flax, a fibrous grass, was grown in Pennsylvania. Within the household, the women and girls of the family spent many hours separating the fibers and spinning them into linen thread woven into cloth for shirts, breeches and other clothing. Shirts were reinforced across the shoulders of the shirt and at the point of the neck opening to make the garment wear longer. The buttons at the neck could be constructed of linen thread. Bone, wooden, horn ,and metal buttons were also used on their clothing. The breeches were made from a sturdy twill and dyed with fugitive colors. Buttons fasten the legs and fall. Here again, we see extra care taken at points of stress, and allowances for growth. Surviving garments show evidence of frequent mending and alterations. The unique shape of the felt hat protected the wearer from the rain and sun, made water repellent by the natural grease in the wool. Shoes were difficult to come by on the frontier during the 18th century. At the time, shoes were not made right or left, so you could put them on either foot.
During the 18th century, children were dressed as little adults and simplicity was the rule from 1750 to 1770. The favorite colors were blue, brown, rust, yellow, and plum. When toddlers in diapers, boys and girls were dressed alike in petticoats. Boys didn’t wear pants until they were 5 or 6 years old - it took time to do and undo the many buttons of the britches. Clothing was constructed with growth in mind with pleats and drawstrings.
